Public speaking is the practice of delivering speeches to a live audience.
The ancient Chinese philosopher Confucius, a key figure in the study of public speaking, advocated for speeches that could profoundly affect individuals, including those not present in the audience. He believed that words possess the power to inspire actions capable of changing the world. In the Western tradition, public speaking was extensively studied in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, where it was a fundamental component of rhetoric, analyzed by prominent thinkers.
Aristotle, the ancient Greek philosopher, identified three types of speeches: deliberative (political), forensic (judicial), and epideictic (ceremonial or demonstrative).
In modern times, public speaking remains a highly valued skill in various sectors, including government, industry, and advocacy. It has also evolved with the advent of digital technologies, incorporating video conferencing, multimedia presentations, and other innovative forms of communication.
Purposes
The main objective of public speaking is to inform or change the audience's thoughts and actions.
The function of public speaking is determined by the speaker's intent, but it is possible for the same speaker, with the same intent, to deliver substantially different speeches to different audiences.
Public speaking is frequently directed at a select and sometimes restricted audience, consisting of individuals who may hold different perspectives. This audience can encompass enthusiastic supporters of the speaker, reluctant attendees with opposing views, or strangers with varying levels of interest in the speaker's topic. Proficient speakers recognize that even a modest-sized audience is not a uniform entity but rather a diverse assembly of individuals.
Public speaking aims to either reassure an anxious audience or to alert a complacent audience of something important. Once the speaker has determined which of these approaches is required, they will use a combination of storytelling and informational approaches to achieve their goals.
The purposes of speech can vary depending on the targeted audience. Speeches during ceremonies may incorporate humor or stories shared from moments in the life of the person celebrated. Speeches focusing on politics will use persuasion that listeners take a course of action, and forensic speeches are debates in which participants take sides, defend certain beliefs, and are judged on how well they can support their argument.
Persuasion
Persuasion is a term that is derived from the Latin word "persuadere."
Persuasive speaking aims to change the audience's beliefs and is commonly used in political debates. Leaders use such public forums in an attempt to persuade their audience, whether they be the general public or government officials.
Persuasive speaking involves four essential elements: (i) the speaker or persuader; (ii) the audience; (iii) the speaking method; and (iv) the message the speaker is trying to convey. When attempting to persuade an audience to change their opinions, a speaker appeals to their emotions and beliefs.
Various techniques exist for speakers to gain audience support. Speakers can demand action from the audience, use inclusive language like 'we' and 'us' to create unity between the speaker and the audience, and choose words with strong connotations to intensify a message's impact.
Though historically uncommon, speakers today are enabled to utilise statistics, data as well as other sources of information, such as the internet, in order to strengthen their argument, stance or proposal; This has only evolved during the modern era, having been generally unavailable at the current rate in the years beforehand with the exception of media via newspapers, television, although claims given by speakers have often been fake news by the aforementioned, often in direct correlation with the big lie means of oratory. This has been further intensified through the recent evolution of mass media in most nations.
Education
Public speaking can often take an educational form, where the speaker transfers knowledge to an audience. TED Talks are an example of educational public speaking. The speakers inform their audience about different topics, such as science, technology, religion, economics,
Society, and
psychology. TED speakers can use the platform to share personal experiences with traumatic events, such as abuse, bullying, grief,
assault, suicidal ideation, near-death encounters, and mental illness. They may attempt to raise awareness and acceptance of stigmatizing issues, such as disabilities, racial differences,
LGBT rights, children's rights, and women's rights.
TED Conferences, LLC, is a media organization that posts talks online for free distribution under the slogan: "ideas worth spreading". TED was originally built by Richard Saul Furman in February 1984 as a conference and has been held annually since 1990. Talks delivered in these conferences are usually posted online. The videos of these recorded speeches and talks inspire native and non-native speakers of English to learn the language and presentation style that is used. As such, TED Talk videos can help improve speaking skills and vocabulary retention .
There have been many studies that have proven the benefits of teaching public speaking strategies to students in an academic setting, including a higher level of self-confidence and helping to render community well-being with access to a variety of information.
Intervention
The intervention style of speaking is a relatively new method proposed by rhetorical theorist William R. Brown. This style revolves around the theory of
idealism, which holds that humans create a symbolic meaning for life and the things around them.
Due to this, the symbolic meaning of everything changes based on the way one communicates. When approaching communication with an intervention style, communication is understood to be responsible for the constant changes in society, behaviors, and how one considers the meaning behind objects, ideologies, and everyday life.
From an interventional perspective, when individuals communicate, they are intervening with what is already a reality and might "shift symbolic reality."
This perspective widens the scope of focus from a single speaker who is intervening to a multitude of speakers all communicating and intervening, simultaneously affecting the world around us.
History
India
The literature of
Ancient India is richly endowed with contributions to the development of a
sui generis theory of rhetoric.
In ancient India, around 700 BCE, public debates by Indian rhetors on the topic of religion were a popular form of entertainment.
The
Vedic chant, composed over three millennia ago, demonstrate a refined sense of rhetoric possessed by the intellectual stratum of the society, as seen in their effective employment of similes.
Ramayana and Mahabharata, India's iconic epics, provide valuable insights into the country's ancient rhetorical traditions, featuring numerous speeches and debates that employ sophisticated systems of categorization.
The Buddhist tradition of India places emphasis on the value of engaging in calm and humorous discourse.
China
In Ancient China, the use of rhetoric was delayed, largely because the country then lacked rhetoricians who could train students.
It was understood that
Chinese Rhetoric was part of Chinese philosophy, which schools taught focusing on two concepts: "Wen" (rhetoric); and "Zhi" (thoughtful content).
Ancient Chinese rhetoric shows strong connections with modern public speaking, as Chinese rhetoric placed a high value on ethics.
Ancient Chinese rhetoric had three objectives: (i) using language to reflect people's feelings; (ii) using language to be more pointed, effective, and impactful; and (iii) using rhetoric as an "aesthetic tool."
A unique and key difference between Chinese and Western rhetoric is the audience targeted for persuasion.
Chinese employs three standards in assessing public rhetoric:
-
Tracing: This standard evaluates how well the speaker is doing compared to traditional speaking practices.
-
Examination: This standard evaluates how well the speaker considers the audience's daily lives.
-
Practice: This standard evaluates how relevant the topic or argument is to the "state, society, and people."
Greece
Although evidence of public speaking training exists in
ancient Egypt,
the first known writing on oratory
[Murphy, James J. "Demosthenes – greatest Greek orator". Encyclopædia Britannica.] is 2,000 years old from
ancient Greece. This work elaborates on principles drawn from the practices and experiences of ancient Greek orators.
Aristotle, one of the first oratory teachers to use definitive rules and models, believed that successful speakers combined, to varying degrees, three qualities in their speech: reasoning, which he called Logos; credentials, which he called Ethos; and emotion, which he called Pathos.
In classical Greece and Rome, rhetoric was the main component of composition and speech delivery, both critical skills for use in public and private life. In ancient Greece, citizens spoke for themselves rather than having professionals, such as modern lawyers, speak for them. Any citizen who wished to succeed in court, politics, or social life had to learn public speaking techniques. Rhetorical tools were first taught by a group of teachers called Sophists, who taught paying students how to speak effectively using their methods.
Separately from the Sophists, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle developed their theories of public speaking, teaching these principles to students interested in learning rhetorical skills. Plato founded Platonic Academy and Aristotle founded The Lyceum to teach these skills.
Demosthenes was a well-known orator from Athens. After his father died when he was 7, he had three legal guardians: Aphobus, Demophon, and Theryppides.
When Philip II, the ruler of Macedon, tried to conquer the Greeks, Demosthenes made a speech called Kata Philippou A. In this speech, he spoke about why he opposed Philip II as a threat to all of Greece.
Rome
During the political rise of the
Roman Republic, Roman orators copied and modified the ancient Greek techniques of public speaking. Instruction in rhetoric developed into a full curriculum, including instruction in grammar (study of the poets), preliminary exercises (
progymnasmata), and preparation of public speeches (declamation) in both forensic and deliberative genres.
In Latin, rhetoric was heavily influenced by Cicero, an orator during the Roman Empire, and emphasized a broad education in all areas of the humanities. Other areas of rhetorical study included the use of wit and humor, the Pathos, and the use of . Oratory in the Roman empire, though less central to political life than during the Republic, remained important in law and entertainment. Famous orators were celebrities in ancient Rome, becoming wealthy and prominent in society.
The ornate Latin style was the primary form of oration through the mid-20th century. After World War II and the increased use of film and television, the Latin oration style began to fall out of favor. This cultural change likely had to do with the rise of the scientific method and the emphasis on a "plain" style of speaking and writing. Even today's formal oratory is much less ornate than in the Classical Era.
Theorists
Aristotle's "Rhetoric"
In one of his most famed writings, "Rhetoric", written in 350 BCE,
Aristotle described mastering the art of public speaking. In this and other works by Aristotle, rhetoric is the act of publicly persuading an audience.
Rhetoric is similar to
Dialectic: he defines both as being acts of persuasion. However, dialect is the act of persuading someone in private, whereas rhetoric is about persuading people in a public setting.
Aristotle defines someone who practices rhetoric or a "rhetorician" as an individual who can comprehend persuasion and how it is applied.
Aristotle divides rhetoric into three elements: (i) the speaker; (ii) the topic or point of the speech; and (iii) the audience.
Aristotle breaks down the political category into five focuses or themes: "ways and means, war and peace, national defense, imports and exports, and legislation."
-
The focus of "ways and means" deals with economic aspects of how the country is spending money.
-
"Peace and War" focuses on what the country has to offer in terms of military power, how war has been conducted, how war has affected the country in the past, and how other countries have conducted war.
-
"National defense" deals with considering a country's position and strength in the event of an invasion. Fortifying structures and points with a strategic advantage should all be considered.
-
"Food supply" is concerned with the ability to support a country in regards to food, importing and exporting food, and carefully making decisions to arrange agreements with other countries.
-
"Legislation" is the most important to Aristotle. The legislation of a country is the most crucial aspect because everything is affected by the policies and laws set by the people in power.
In Aristotle's "Rhetoric" writing, he mentions three strategies someone can use to try to persuade an audience:
In the last part of "Rhetoric", Aristotle mentions that the most critical piece of persuasion is to know in detail what makes up government and to attack what makes it unique: "customs, institutions, and interest".
Cicero's Five Canons of Rhetoric
In his writing
De Inventione, Cicero explained the five canons or tenets of rhetoric. The five canons apply to rhetoric and public speaking. The five canons are invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery.
Invention is the process of coming up with what to say to persuade the audience of the key points. Individuals will need to understand their topic, brainstorm their ideas, and discover effective research strategies that they can use to get their point across. Arrangement is the process of structuring ideas together. Cicero and the Roman rhetorician Quintilian identified the structure of a text as Exordium, Narrative, Partition, Confirmation, Refutation, and Peroration (or conclusion). In today's text, the structure has been reduced to introduction, body, and conclusion. Style is the process of choosing language and constructing your presentation to create an emotional response from the audience. Individuals can achieve this by using language and rhetoric devices like analogy, allusion and alliteration.
Memory is remembering enough so that individuals are able to fully and fluently present without reading off a paper or note cards. This includes figures of speech, which can be used to improve memory. Roman rhetoricians made a distinction between natural memory (an innate ability) and artificial memory (particular techniques that enhanced natural abilities).
Glossophobia
The fear of speaking in public, known as
glossophobia or public speaking anxiety, is often mentioned as one of the most common phobias.
[ The reason is uncertain, but it has been speculated that this fear is primal, similar to how animals fear being seen by predators.]
The apprehension experienced when speaking in public can have several causes,
Training
Effective public speaking can be developed by joining a club such as Rostrum, Toastmasters International, Association of Speakers Clubs (ASC), or Speaking Circles, in which members are assigned exercises to improve their speaking skills. Members learn by observation and practice and hone their skills by listening to constructive suggestions, followed by new public speaking exercises.
Tips for improving public speaking:
-
Rehearsal
-
Craft speech that targets audience.
-
Organize it in a way that attracts audience attention.
-
Adapt to audiences' reaction.
-
Make your speech interesting through use of language.
-
Use tone and body language.
-
Refrain from script and make an outline
-
Refrain from making gestures that distract audience.
-
Make your intro interesting and leave audience with something to think about at ending.
-
Use audiovisual aids that enhance or clarify your speech.
Toastmasters International
Toastmasters International is a public speaking organization with over 15,000 clubs worldwide and more than 300,000 members.
Australian Rostrum
Rostrum is another public speaking organization, founded in Australia, with more than 100 clubs all over the country.
Self-training solutions
The new millennium has seen a notable increase in the number of training solutions, offered in the form of video and online courses. Videos can provide simulated examples of behaviors to emulate. Professional public speakers often engage in ongoing training and education to refine their craft. This may include seeking guidance to improve their speaking skills, such as learning better storytelling techniques, learning how to use humor as a communication tool effectively, and continuously researching their topic area of focus.
Professional speakers
Public speaking for business and commercial events is often done by professionals, whose expertise is well established. These speakers can be contracted independently, through representation by a speakers bureau, or by other means. Public speaking plays a large role in the professional world. It is believed that 70 percent of all jobs involve some form of public speaking.
Modern
Technology
New technology has opened different forms of public speaking that are non-traditional such as TED Talks, which are conferences that are broadcast globally. This form of public speaking has created a wider audience base because public speaking can now reach both physical and virtual audiences.
Multimedia presentations can contain different video clips, sound effects, animation, laser pointers, remote control clickers, and endless bullet points.
Public speakers may use audience response systems. For large assemblies, the speaker will usually speak with the aid of a public address system or microphone and loudspeaker.
Telecommunication
Telecommunication and videoconferencing are also forms of public speaking. David M. Fetterman of Stanford University wrote in his 1997 article Videoconferencing over the Internet: "Videoconferencing technology allows geographically disparate parties to hear and see each other usually through satellite or telephone communication systems."
Notable modern theorists
-
Harold Lasswell developed Lasswell's model of communication. Five basic elements of public speaking are described in this theory: the communicator, message, medium, audience, and effect. In short, the speaker should be answering the question " who says what in which channel to whom with what effect?"
-
Several other models and theories were created in the 1950s, 60s and 70s. These tend to include emphasis on feedback from listeners, as well as understandings of context, shared knowledge and shared experience between people, and communication noise.
Women and public speaking
Australia
An organization called the Penguin Club of Australia was founded in Sydney in 1937 and aimed at developing women's communication skills.
Great Britain
The British political activist, Emmeline Pankhurst, founded the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) on October 10, 1903.
Japan
Toshiko Kishida (1861–1901) was a female speaker during the Meiji era in Japan. In October 1883, she publicly delivered a speech entitled 'Hakoiri Musume' (Daughters Kept in Boxes) in front of approximately 600 people.
Pakistan
Malala Yousafzai, a public speaker born in the Swat District in Pakistan, is an educational activist for women and girls.
United States
During the 18th and 19th centuries in the United States, a prohibition was instituted whereby women were precluded from engaging in public discourse within the confines of the courtroom, the Senate floor, and the pulpit.
The first female agents and sisters of the American Anti-Slavery Society Angelina Grimké and Sarah Grimké created a platform for public lectures to women and conducted tours between 1837 and 1839. The sisters advocated that slavery relates to women's rights and that women need equality.
See also
Further reading
-
Anderson, Chris. The Official TED Guide to Public Speaking. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, Boston, 2016.
-
Carnegie, Dale· Arthur R. Pell. Public Speaking for Success. 2006
-
Carnegie, Dale. Public Speaking and Influencing Men in Business. 2003
-
Carnegie, Dale. How to Develop Self-Confidence & Influence People by Public Speaking. New York: Pocket Books, 1926
-
Collins, Philip. "The Art of Speeches and Presentations" (John Wiley & Sons, 2012).
-
Esenwein, J. Berg and Dale Carnegie, The Art of Public Speaking (1915)
-
Fairlie, Henry. "Oratory in Political Life," History Today (Jan 1960) 10#1 pp. 3–13. A survey of political oratory in Great Britain from 1730 to 1960.
-
Flintoff, John-Paul. "A Modest Book About How To Make An Adequate Speech" (Short Books, 2021). excerpt
-
Gold, David, and Catherine L. Hobbs, eds. Rhetoric, History, and Women's Oratorical Education: American Women Learn to Speak (Routledge, 2013).
-
Heinrichs, Jay. "Thank You For Arguing" (Penguin, 2008).
-
Lucas, Stephen E. The Art of Public Speaking (13th ed. McGraw Hill, 2019).
-
Noonan, Peggy. "Simply Speaking" (Regan Books, 1998).
-
Parry-Giles, Shawn J., and J. Michael Hogan, eds. The Handbook of Rhetoric and Public Address (2010) excerpt
-
Sproule, J. Michael. "Inventing public speaking: Rhetoric and the speech book, 1730–1930." Rhetoric & Public Affairs 15.4 (2012): 563–608. excerpt
-
Turner, Kathleen J., Randall Osborn, et al. Public speaking (11th ed. Houghton Mifflin, 2017). excerpt
External links
